Communications of the ACM
Communications of the ACM
Facilitating Tacit Knowledge Exchange
Knowledge managementthat elusive organizational problematiccontinues to receive the refining attentions of management practitioners and scholars alike. Despite the high amount of interest, most knowledge management initiatives fall short of their goals [1], largely due to the view that IT is a silver bullet. While IT can enable people to transcend distance and time barriers through the use of tools such as email and group support systems, it cannot motivate people to share knowledge. The biggest obstacle to effective knowledge management is not implementing a cutting-edge IT solution, but getting people to talk and share their know-how. Knowledge originates in the minds of individuals and hence one must realize that unless members of the organization are motivated to share, no IT solution can deliver desired goals.
We deviate from the common norm here, and report on a study that takes a humanistic rather than a technologist perspective on knowledge management. Our research in one software firm in the Chicago area provides key insights for facilitating tacit knowledge exchange in office game or coffee rooms [2].
One can trace the epistemological discussion on knowledge to the days of Plato and Aristotle. Attempts to classify knowledge can be considered from two perspectives: explicit and tacit based on communicability of knowledge, and the individual and collective knowledge based on the knowing entity. Explicit knowledge can be expressed in words and numbers and shared in the form of data, scientific formulae, product specifications, manuals, and universal principles. This kind of knowledge can be readily transmitted across individuals formally and systematically. It can easily be processed by a computer, transmitted electronically, or stored in databases. Use of artificial intelligence-based techniques such as expert and case-based reasoning systems are prominent for explicit knowledge exchange.
Conversely, tacit knowledge is highly personal and hard to formalize, thus making it difficult to communicate or share with others [3]. Subjective insights, intuitions, and hunches fall into this category of knowledge. Furthermore, tacit knowledge is deeply rooted in each individual's actions and experiences, as well as in the ideals, values, and emotions they embrace. The subjective and intuitive nature of tacit knowledge makes it difficult to process or transmit the acquired knowledge in any systematic or logical manner. For tacit knowledge to be communicated it must be converted into words, models, or numbers that anyone can understand.
Of interest to our research is facilitating tacit knowledge exchange among knowledge workers. One approach could be through use of IT such as electronic networks and group support systems. In these settings individuals exchange knowledge via email, online discussions, chats, and listservs. An alternative approach (a people-centered approach) facilitates tacit knowledge exchange by encouraging face-to-face dialogue between members of an organization. Dialogue can be encouraged through deliberate or emergent mechanisms. Deliberate mechanisms are planned interaction settings, which include cross-functional team meetings and product innovation camps. Nonaka and Takeuchi describe the case of Honda, which set up brainstorming camps to solve complex problems; these meetings were held outside the workplace, often at a resort where participants discussed issues while socializing. On the other hand, emergent mechanisms are informal in nature and occur in unplanned settings. Emergence is the development of bottom-up orderrather than formal mandates, these meetings emerge from the interaction of peers: this article is concerned with such environments. Organizational members exchange ideas and share narratives in informal settings more readily, thereby building a shared understanding out of conflicting and confusing information. We investigate the role played by game rooms on organization premises in facilitating such informal dialogues between employees for tacit knowledge exchange.
The Study: Game Rooms
Beta Corporation1 was the site chosen to study the role of game rooms in facilitating tacit knowledge exchange. The company, headquartered in Chicago, provides industry-specific IT solutions. Toward the end of 1998 the company began experiencing double-digit employee turnover due to high demand for IT professionals in the booming economy. Faced with the challenge of how to retain and increase employee satisfaction, a multitude of efforts were undertaken.
A pivotal initiative was setting up game rooms on the office premises. The game rooms were set up with four video arcade stations, a pool table, dartboard, a wide assortment of board games, vending machines offering free soda and coffee, and comfortable couches. Two such game rooms were located in the Chicago office. Our involvement with Beta Corporation began after the initial decision to set up the game rooms was implemented. Through a series of semi-structured interviews with members of the executive team and a dedicated "workout" team, rich qualitative data was gathered on initial aspirations of the entertainment centers.
The beginnings of the endeavor were troublesome. After inauguration of the rooms with an open house, use of the facilities remained in the single digits for the first few weeks. Members of the executive team then initiated a series of proactive mechanisms to improve exploitation of the asset; game room usage doubled in the period that followed. To conclude our study we conducted a survey to gauge employee usage of the game rooms, key lessons learned from our experience are highlighted here.
Top management support needs to be present and vocal. Two crucial reasons why organizations are unable to effectively leverage knowledge are because of lack of commitment of top leadership to sharing organizational knowledge and the absence of role models who exhibit the desired behavior. Leadership must set the tone for achievement of fruitful knowledge management practices and benefits in an organization by acting as a catalyst or enabler through setting examples, engendering trust, instilling a cohesive and creative culture, and establishing a vision. Mere presence of top management support for knowledge initiatives will not suffice. At Beta Corporation, top management was very much involved in the conception of the idea of game rooms to facilitate employee exchanges of social and organizational knowledge. Management assembled a dedicated workout team and gave it the authority to set up the rooms within a certain budget. However, once the game rooms were complete, top management took a more relaxed approach. For instance, during the first two weeks, not a single member of the executive team visited the game rooms to show support for their use.
By making knowledge sharing a pleasurable experience, employees were more inclined to take special efforts coding tacit knowledge into an electronically transmissible format.
It soon became evident that if improved use of the asset was to occur, the management team had to lead the change within the organization and could not leave it to chance. One of the barriers organizations face when incorporating knowledge management initiatives is employee resistance. As a mechanism to show vocal support, all top management personnel posted sign-up sheets outside their doors. Any employee in the organization could sign up to play pool or battle on the arcades with the senior executives. This proactive initiative was highly successful due to two key implications: fear of using the game rooms during traditional business hours was eradicated, and a cascading effect was seen by departmental managers. Through a random selection of members interviewed in the organization, fear was cited as the biggest reason why the rooms were unused. By seeing top management advocate use of the game rooms during office hours, fear was curbed. Middle management, which consisted of departmental heads and project managers, also followed suit. They began to post schedules for their team members to sign up for contests and began to encourage use of the rooms.
Clear communication of vision and scope. Employees are key ingredients in the knowledge management revolution since they are the knowledge providers and users. While the executive and workout team had clear objectives and purpose for game rooms, this was not conveyed effectively to the rest of the organization. Besides an inaugural memo and speech by a senior executive during the open house, no other communication was sent out highlighting the purpose of the game rooms. Due to the lack of communication, two common themes that were deduced through interviews with employers were: confusion and negative perspectives. Confusion was present as employees spent time discussing with their peers their perceptions on game room usage. Each employee had their own thoughts on the issue and hence after discussions with peers, they became more confused. When no clear statement of purpose was made, the negative perceptions of the game rooms overwhelmed the positive. Common notions included "...only people with no work will use them...", "...I don't want to be caught spending time playing darts when I have three deadlines to meet...", and "...do managers keep tabs on who uses the rooms...".
To deal with the issue, members of the executive team hosted a series of discussion forums to educate middle managers and project leaders on the statement of purpose and vision of the game rooms. Structured presentations were given followed by Q&A sessions. A logo incorporating the phrase "Knowledgeable individuals talk and interact with their peers" was developed and posted on the company's intranet. An intranet discussion board was also set up to facilitate employees to post questions anonymously on issues pertaining to the game rooms. Comments gathered from the closing survey revealed it was the clear communication and direction from top management that helped foster productive use of game rooms.
Let nature take its course. This last insight has not been given proper attention in the literature. After continued use of the game rooms was observed, an initiative was carried out to implement an electronic database on the company's Lotus Notes system. The aim of the database was to serve as an electronic repository for sharing any kind of knowledge, and scheduling playing time on the various games and equipment. Management did not set any guidelines on what kind of knowledge should be posted to the database or the amount of postings. Instead a conscious decision was made to be liberal and open.
The figure highlights the number of postings based on various categories. As can be deduced from the figure, in the beginning the amount of corporate knowledge exchanged was low compared to comments and suggestions on how to improve the game room and entertainment valued playing tips. But as time passed, we see the amount of project-based knowledge exchanged grew dramatically. This category included discussions on product innovations, defects in current projects, milestone achievements on projects, and research on new programming paradigms.
The distinction or judgment between what comprises tacit and explicit knowledge is tricky. Tacit knowledge resides in a person's mind; hence all knowledge contained in electronic transcripts, on discussion boards, or in databases is explicit in nature. However, looking closely at transcripts we can deduce whether knowledge shared was truly explicit in nature such as references made to manuals, Web sites, and so forth, or tacit knowledge made explicit such as suggestions on problem-solving methodologies, sharing personal experiences on software design, or opinions on quality control, for example. Sorting through transcripts will also aid in categorizing the originality of knowledge shared. Multiple coders were used to carry out content analysis of postings and classify them according to various dimensions of tacit or explicit. Statistics were then calculated to see the growth in tacit knowledge exchanged over the time horizon. In a 20-week time frame, the amount of tacit knowledge exchanged increased by 32%.
This finding is important for a multitude of reasons. In organizations there is a tendency for some people to over- or micromanage. Knowledge management cannot be fostered under these settings as people feel pressured and are less motivated to engage in dialogue. Secondly, changing to a knowledge management culture does not happen overnight. The senior executives were aware of this and hence did not want to impose strict guidelines on what knowledge could or could not be shared. Instead they were more interested in just getting people talking, which has a direct bearing on moving to a knowledge-oriented organization.
Finally, we see how IT can foster tacit knowledge exchange if used properly. During initial interviews with the CIO, it was asked why an IT solution was not sought out to foster knowledge managed. He replied "...Currently we have Lotus Notes as well as numerous other databases for tracking product faults and customer queries. However, we still have not figured out a way for capturing technical expertise. Experimentation was carried out using dedicated electronic boards for posting technical queries but response rates were low. A key reason being that our programmers and engineers have a hard time explaining things in words...they would rather demonstrate how it is done..." Technology can enable change, if people want to change. By making knowledge sharing a pleasurable experience, employees were more inclined to take special efforts coding tacit knowledge into an electronically transmissible format. Moreover, if employees had questions, they could meet the knowledge source in the game room during a mutually acceptable time and discuss issues.
Conclusion
To a large extent knowledge management initiatives have turned to IT solutions. It is, however, important to give people the room and space to talk to each other as knowledge is generated by people at the individual level. Unless people talk and share it with peers knowledge remains untapped. As demonstrated in this case, informal and emergent structures are a good means to foster tacit knowledge exchange. In the current economic times, when cost cutting seems to be an overarching concern for most organizations in order to show profitability, such initiatives might suffer. However, we urge organizations to think long-term to value such initiatives as asset-building experiences rather than as luxury expenses.
References
1. Desouza, K.C. Barriers to effective use of knowledge management systems in software engineering. Commun. ACM 46, 1 (Jan. 2003), 99101.
2. Desouza, K.C. Strategic contributions of coffee and game rooms to knowledge management: Some preliminary insights. Information & Management (2003).
3. Nonaka, I. and Takeuchi, H. The Knowledge Creating Company. Oxford University Press, NY, 1995.
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